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Deep beneath the earth, the ancient people of what is now China constructed extraordinary houses and palaces—not for the living, but for the dead. These elaborate tombs were designed to provide comfort in the afterlife, ensuring that the deceased continued their existence with all the necessities of their former world. The artifacts and attendants buried alongside them offer valuable insights into both the individuals they commemorated and the emergence of a unified China, as Jessica Rawson explained to Matthew Symonds.

Tombs as Homes for the Afterlife

In ancient China, tombs were not merely burial sites but elaborate homes designed for the afterlife. A centuries-old Chinese tale illustrates this belief: a traveler, seeking shelter for the night, unknowingly stays at an inn that does not exist. The next day, when he and his friends revisit the site, they find only a cemetery. The disturbed tomb figures within bear signs of a battle, mirroring the traveler’s supposed adventures. This eerie story underscores the dual nature of tombs—as places of burial for the living and residences for the dead.

Archaeological discoveries confirm this long-standing tradition, revealing tombs as some of the most remarkable constructions in ancient China. Unlike the grand stone monuments of Western civilizations, Chinese tombs were built underground, their vast chambers filled with objects meant to provide comfort and status in the afterlife. These structures also tell a broader story of cultural evolution, independent of the written histories of early Chinese dynasties.

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The Unique Path of Chinese Civilization

Understanding early China requires stepping away from Western perspectives. Unlike Greece and Rome, where towering stone structures remain as legacies of the past, ancient Chinese architecture largely relied on perishable materials. Jessica Rawson, Emerita Professor of Chinese Art and Archaeology at Oxford, notes in her book Life and Afterlife in Ancient China that, in China, history is found by looking down—into the earth—rather than up at surviving structures.

China’s geographical isolation played a key role in shaping its development. The towering Tibetan plateau separated it from Iran and India, limiting overland connections. Instead, influences trickled in from the northern steppes, carried by mobile pastoralists who introduced metallurgy. It was only during the late Roman period that the famed Silk Road facilitated greater cultural exchange.

One consequence of this isolation was the absence of stone architecture on the scale seen in Europe. Instead, the Chinese utilized the abundant loess soil to create city walls and large earthen platforms, upon which wooden structures were built. While the wood has since decayed, leaving little trace, these platforms remain, underscoring a distinct architectural tradition.

China’s agriculture, too, diverged from Western models. Dominated by vast lowland plains and monsoon-fed river valleys, the region was well-suited for grain farming but not for large-scale livestock herding. Early domestication focused on dogs and pigs, with cattle and sheep arriving later via the steppes. Unlike the mixed-agriculture economies of Europe, China developed a grain-based farming system that encouraged settled lifestyles and dense populations.

The Spread of Writing and Burial Customs

Despite regional diversity, some cultural elements became widespread. The Chinese script, for example, first appeared in the Yellow River region during the 2nd millennium BC and later spread southward. Alongside writing, the tradition of elaborate tomb construction also expanded. Royal and elite burials included ritual offerings and ancestor worship, reinforcing the belief that the deceased required continuous care in the afterlife.

Jessica Rawson’s research explores twelve key burials that chart China’s millennia-long transformation. One striking example comes from the Liangzhu culture (3300–2200 BC), near present-day Shanghai. A tomb at Fanshan contained an astonishing 647 jade artifacts, indicating the stone’s deep spiritual and social significance.

The Power of Jade

Jade, a prized material in ancient China, was believed to hold mystical properties. The Liangzhu people, who painstakingly crafted jade items through an arduous grinding process, buried these artifacts with their dead. The tomb at Fanshan revealed the occupant adorned in jade ornaments, with jade axes—a weapon of status and power in early China—placed beside him.

Among the more enigmatic jade objects were cong: hollow tubes with a square exterior and a round inner section, adorned with engravings of large-eyed, fanged creatures held by human-like figures. While scholars speculate about their meanings, no definitive interpretation exists. Their presence in burials, however, suggests they played a vital role in spiritual beliefs, possibly offering protection or guidance in the afterlife.

The Continuing Mystery

Despite advances in archaeology, much about ancient Chinese tombs remains unknown. Without contemporary written records, deciphering their full meaning is a challenge. Yet, this very mystery adds to their allure, offering glimpses into a world where life and afterlife were deeply intertwined. The enduring craftsmanship and scale of these tombs affirm the significance of ancestor worship and the profound cultural legacy of ancient China.